Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Common criteria

Inclusion criteria

Aged between 18 and 65 years; non-smoking; able to perform normal physical activity including running (i.e., no medical restrictions on physical activity mandated by a physician); residing in the region for the past 5 years, without any plans to move in the following year; having a smartphone and access to the Internet (Wi-Fi or data)

Exclusion criteria

Acute (in the past 6 weeks) medical issues (pain, injury, surgery) preventing normal physical activity, other acute illnesses; pregnancy; radiological examination in the past 7 days; factors that would exclude a graded exercise test or magnetic resonance examination (such as a pacemaker, radioactive or surgical devices/implants, insulin pump)

Inclusion criteria for runners

Running as a main exercise activity, > 150 min of moderate or > 75 min of strenuous physical activity per week (or an equivalent combination of moderate and strenuous physical activity) [36], ≥ 10 km of running per week for at least 6 weeks prior to the tests, intending to continue running for next 12 months, permanent (≥ 5 years) whole-year residency in the determined areas, not planning to move away from the determined areas during the next 12 months, with Internet access, and using a smartphone (with iOS or Android 5.0 or higher)

Inclusion criteria for “inactive” individuals

 < 150 min of moderate or < 75 min of strenuous exercise per week (i.e., not meeting current public physical activity guidelines [36], capable of running, but not running or running irregularly and/or less than 6 weeks prior to the tests, no contraindications to exercise, permanent (≥ 5 years) whole-year residency in the determined areas, not planning to move away from the determined areas during the next 12 months, with Internet access, and using a smartphone (with iOS or Android 5.0 or higher)